George Papanicolaou: The Father of Cervical Cancer Research

January 19, 2023

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In 2021, it was estimated that about 14,000 new cervical cancer cases were diagnosed in the United States. Of these, some 4,000 people died from cervical cancer.

The Pap Test, is the most common type of screening for cervical cancer which looks for pre-cancers and cell changes on the cervix that might become cervical cancer. Since the institution of the Pap test, thousands of lives have been saved due to its effectiveness in early detection of cervical cancer and the number of procedures available for cervical cancer treatment with efficacy that improves the earlier the cancerous cells are detected. For this test and the pivotal research that went into its development we owe Dr. George Papanicolaou who is often credited as the father of cervical cancer research. This Cervical Cancer Awareness Month we dive into the history of cervical cancer research and the important study by Dr. George Papanicolaou that would eventually lead to the development of the most effective way to save thousands of lives everywhere from cervical cancer.

The Father of Cervical Cancer Research

Medical science has come a long way in terms of understanding cervical cancer, its causes, and early detection. This is a far cry from the era of George Papanicolaou, a Greek scientist who lived in an era where Cervical cancer was the leading cause of death in women. Born on May 13, 1883, in the town of Kimi, Greece, Papanicolaou attended the University of Athens with a major in music and humanities. His father, a physician, would eventually influence his decision to pursue a career in medicine. It was then in 1904, that Papanicolaou would graduate from medical school with top honors.

In the onset of his career, Papanicolaou worked in the military as an assistant surgeon before returning to his hometown of Kimi. During his time at home, he cared for leprosy patients who were socially outcasted and pushed to the fringes of the town so as to avoid spreading of the disease. He eventually further pursued his passion for medical science by travelling to the University of Munich to receive his PhD in Zoology by 1910.

War in the Balkans

Papanicolaou like many others at the time eventually joined the military of Greece during the First Balkan War of 1912. This tumultuous time in the Balkan peninsula eventually led George and his new wife Andromech Mavroyeni to flee to the United States with little to nothing in their pockets. After spending 2 years working odd jobs to make it in America, both he and his wife eventually found jobs at New York University’s Pathology Department and Cornell University Medical College’s Anatomy Department.

Having his PhD in Zooology, Papanicolaou naturally began his study on guinea pigs. His study of sex chromosomes led to the beginnings of the first pap test which he pioneered through the timed study of vaginal secretions in animals to gain an understanding of their reproductive cycles. Papanicolaou published his first study in 1928, which largely went unnoticed. It wouldn’t be until 1943 after working for some time as an Assistant Professor at Cornell University and in collaboration with Dr. Herbert Traut a gynaecological pathologist, that his work on the normal and malignant cervical cells would be published in their landmark book Diagnosis of Uterine Cancer by Vaginal Smear.

The First Pap Test

In their book published in 1943, Papanicolaou and Traut extensively described the physiological changes of the menstrual cycle and the influence of hormones on cervical cells. However, what made this exploration on the human cervix so important was that it demonstrated the effectiveness on what would be the first pap smear test. This test quickly became the gold standard for cervical cancer detection and, to this day, is a cost-effective way to check for malignant cervical cells with a high level of accuracy.

Although Papanicolaou was certainly not the first medical researcher to study cancerous cells under a microscope, nor was he the first to truly study the pathology of cancer cells in the cervix, his pioneering research on sex chromosomes and eventual development on the pap test made his research on cervical cancer pivotal in the fight against cervical cancer. Today, the number of deaths and late-stage detections of cervical cancer have significantly reduced whereas some 40,000 women died each year from cervical cancer in the U.S. in the early 1900s that number is now only 4,000 and with steady decline year-after-year as more awareness is spread on HPV and the importance of routine pap tests.

Get Screened

If you’re a woman age 21 or over, hopefully you’ve already discussed the importance of screening for cervical cancers with your doctor. Two screening tests can help prevent cervical cancer or find it early:

Although Papanicolaou was certainly not the first medical researcher to study cancerous cells under a microscope, nor was he the first to truly study the pathology of cancer cells in the cervix, his pioneering research on sex chromosomes and eventual development on the pap test made his research on cervical cancer pivotal in the fight against cervical cancer. Today, the number of deaths and late-stage detections of cervical cancer have significantly reduced whereas some 40,000 women died each year from cervical cancer in the U.S. in the early 1900s that number is now only 4,000 and with steady decline year-after-year as more awareness is spread on HPV and the importance of routine pap tests.

  • The pap test (or pap smear) looks for precancers, cell changes on the cervix that might become cervical cancer if they are not treated appropriately.
  • The HPV test looks for the virus (human papillomavirus) that can cause these cell changes.

Both tests can be done in a doctor’s office or clinic. During the Pap test, the doctor will use a plastic or metal instrument, called a speculum, to widen the vagina. This helps the doctor examine the vagina and cervix, and collect a few cells and mucus from the cervix and the area around it. The cells are sent to a laboratory.

  • If you are getting Pap test, the cells will be checked to see if they are normal
  • If you are getting an HPV test, the cells will be tested for HPV.

Of course, the most important part of detecting cervical cancer early and preventing complications due to cervical cancer really lay in understanding your body, your health, and getting screened routinely. For this and many other types of cancers, the most effective prevention method is through taking control of your health and being proactive to ensure that you are up-to-date with the changes within your body as you age. Thankfully, through the research of medical scientists such as Dr. George Papanicolaou we have all the tests and tools we need to stay healthy and prevent cervical cancer. So, if you’re concerned about your cervical health or simply want to be proactive in preventing cervical cancer, be sure to take full advantage of the tremendous amount of research and advocacy of cervical cancer research history and get screened!